Hadrian Travels to Judaea

Hadrian 134-138 AD Minted in Rome Æ Sestertius 32mm, 27.83g Obv: Laureate bust and draped right; HADRIANVS AVG COS III P P. R Rev: ADVENTVI AVG IVDAEAE, exergue SC; Hadrian with parchment, in front Judea to the left. with patera and cup flanked by two children; between them altar with calf for the sacrifice (commemorates Hadrian’s travels) Ref: RIC 1768 (Author's collection)

The coin shown above belongs to the ADVENTVS series, where the emperor appears standing and robed, in front of the female personification of the province (e.g., Africa, Arabia, Cilicia, Mauritania, Thrace, Britannia, Gaul, Hispania, Italy - in this case, Judaea) accompanied by children. Between them there is an altar and an animal destined for sacrifice, in this case a bull. This series is generally dated between 134 and 138, but, following the Jewish rebellion (the Bar Kochba revolt) the emperor decided to eliminate the name of Judea from the Empire, changing the province's designation to Syria-Palestine (and the city of Jerusalem after himself, Aelia Capitolina). Therefore, it is very likely that this coin was minted prior to that decision, depicting a submissive patron and the emperor as opposed to a province and capital in revolt. 

JUDAEA, Bar Kochba Revolt AR Sela (14.18 g), 132-135 CE Undated, attributed to year 3 (134/5 CE) Obv: 'Simon' (Paleo-Hebrew), tetrastyle façade of the Temple of Jerusalem; show bread table or Ark of the Covenant in chest form with semicircular lid and short legs, seen from a narrow side; above façade, star. Rev: 'For the freedom of Jerusalem' (Paleo-Hebrew), lulav with etrog at left. Ref: Hendin 1411; Mildenberg 87 (O12/R67; this coin #22); TJC 267. ex Mel Wacks Collection; Ex Hess-Leu 31 (7 December 1966), 541; NY Sale lot 96 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA. Bar Kochba Revolt, 132-135 C.E. AR Sela (14.11 gms), Jerusalem Mint, Attributed to Year 3 (134/5 C.E.). Mildenberg-92 (O17/R71); Meshorer-269; Hendin-1413. Obverse: Facade of the Jerusalem Temple, containing showbread table; "Simon" around; Reverse: Lulav; etrog to left; "for the freedom of Israel" around. Some typical minor striking weakness and light flan roughness, but an otherwise attractive representation of the type featuring good centering and pleasing toning. ex Solomon Collection; ex: Heritage (5/2009) Lot #20081. (Author's collection)

The coins above images the façade of the Temple at the time of the Bar Kochba revolt and the destruction of the temple following Hadrian's visit (depicted above)

​AELIA CAPITOLINA (JERUSALEM)

The Emperor Publius Aelius Traianus Hadrianus (117-138 AD), following his crushing campaign against the rebellion of Jewish Zealots – known as the Bar Kochba revolt – established a Roman colony of legionnaires in the once capital of Judaea (Jerusalem).

After suppressing the Jewish rebellion, Hadrian proceeded to expel all Jews from Jerusalem and prohibited the Jews from approaching their sacred city upon pain of death (with the exception of one day a year, to mourn the destruction of the First and Second Temples). Moreover, he renamed the city after his family name (Aelia) and after the namesake of Jupiter Capitolinus. Accordingly, he commissioned the construction of a Temple to Jupiter in place of the Jewish Temple located in a prominent position on the temple mount.

Hadrian also began minting coins following these developments to commemorate his achievements. Furthermore, the themes used among this series of coinage facilitated a re-casting the city’s culture from one of Judean sacredness to one reflecting its new pagan Roman legionnaire populace. As Cassius Dio records in the late 2nd century/early third century, Aelia Capitolia was re-settled as a city for Roman legionnaires and their families (dominated by the Tenth Legion, stationed in Jerusalem following the earlier destruction of the city under Titus during the First Jewish War (66-73 AD). 

The coins of the colony are inscribed with Latin inscriptions to include various derivations denoting Aelia’s colonial status - COL AEL CAP (Colonia Aelia Capitolina). Coins were minted from Aelia for nearly 120 years comprising the reigns of Hadrian (117-138 AD) through that of Hostilian (251 AD).   

Hadrian inaugurated his new coin series by commemorating the construction of Jupiter’s temple (perhaps adding impetus to the Zealots revolt) as well as his founding of the city's new boundaries (a common image among Roman coins used to denote the founding or re-establishing of a city). The image of the emperor, ruler, or priest plowing the boundaries reflects what was called the sulcus primigenius or first furrow. For a more detailed description of these events, readers are referred to an article by David Jacobson (2019) entitled, "The enigma of the name Iliya (=Aelia) for Jerusalem in early Islam."

Coin descriptions and numbering systems used in this section are based on the work of Yaakov Meshorer (1935-2004) the foremost expert in this area of numismatics. Meshorer's seminal reference, "The Coinage of Aelia Capitolina" (1989) serves as the basis for the following corpus of coins.

Hadrian (117-138 A.D.)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina Hadrian 117-138 A.D. Æ 27mm Obv: Laur. bust of emp. r. IMP[eratori] CAES[ari] TRAI[ano] HADRIANVS - “For Imperator Caesar Trajanus Hadrianus” Rev: Façade of distyle temple of Jupiter Capitolinus (Zeus seated in center, flanked by Minerva and Juno COL(onia) AEL(ia) KAP(itolina) - “The Colony of Aelia Capitolina” Ref: Meshorer, Aelia 1 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Hadrian. 117-138 CE. Æ (26.5mm, 18.94 g, 11h). Laureate and draped bust right, seen from behind / The Capitoline Triad: Zeus, holding scepter, seated left between Athena standing right, holding spear, and Hera standing left, holding scepter; all within distyle temple. Meshorer, Aelia 1; Kadman, Aelia 3; RPC III 3963; Rosenberger 2; Sofaer 1. ex. Gil Steinberg Collection, purchased from Bowers & Ruddy Galleries, 13 January 1981 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Hadrian 117-138 A.D. AE 16mm Obverse: Laureate bust of emperor, right Reverse: Legionary Eagle Reference: Meshorer 3 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Hadrian 117-138 A.D. AE 13mm Obverse: Laureate bust of emperor, right Reverse: Legionary Boar Reference: Meshorer 4 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Hadrian 117-138 A.D. AE 25mm Obverse: Laureate bust of emperor, right Reverse: Bust of Antoninus Pius Reference: Meshorer 9 (Author's collection)

Antoninus Pius 138-161 A.D.

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Antoninus Pius 138-161 A.D. AE 27mm Obverse: Laureate bust of emperor, right Reverse: Six-columned Temple with deity below archway Reference: Meshorer 11 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Antoninus Pius 138-161 A.D. AE 30mm Obverse: Laureate bust of emperor, right Reverse: She-wolf suckling Romulus and Remus Reference: Meshorer 16 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Antoninus Pius. AD 138-161. Æ (25mm, 12.57 g, 12h). Laureate, draped, and cuirassed bust right / Jupiter seated left, holding small bust and scepter; at feet, eagle standing left, head right; all within tetrastyle temple with eagle in pediment. Meshorer, Aelia 18; Sofaer 20 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Antoninus Pius 138-161 A.D. AE 24mm Obverse: Laureate bust of emperor, right Reverse: Tetra-style Temple with Tyche standing within Reference: Meshorer 20 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Antoninus Pius 138-161 A.D. AE 17mm Obverse: Laureate bust of emperor, right Reverse: Three Graces or Three Nymphs Reference: Meshorer 29 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Antoninus Pius. AD 138-161. Æ 17mm (3.32 g, 12h). Laureate and draped bust right / Boar standing right. Meshorer, Aelia 30; Kadman 33; Rosenberger 19; SNG ANS - ex CNG 220, lot 346 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Antoninus Pius 138-161 A.D. AE 17mm Obverse: Laureate bust of emperor, right Reverse: Legionary Eagle Reference: Meshorer 34 (Author's collection)

Marcus Aurelius 161-180 A.D.

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Marcus Aurelius. 161-180 CE. Æ (33mm, 32.54 g, 12h). Foundation issue. Bareheaded and draped bust right / Marcus (as founder) plowing pomerium with yoke of oxen right. Meshorer, Aelia 42; Sofaer –, but cf. 45 (for obv.; same die); RPC IV.3 Online 9269. Earthen green surfaces. VF. Extremely rare, RPC cites only two examples, only two in CoinArchives. From the Father & Son Collection. Ex Fontanille 48 (5 April 2013), lot 9 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Marcus Aurelius 161-180 A.D. AE 33mm Obverse: Bareheaded bust of emperor, right Reverse: She-wolf suckling Remus and Romulus Reference: Meshorer 43 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Marcus Aurelius. AD 161-180. Æ 26mm (16.84 g, 5h). Laureate, draped, and cuirassed bust right, seen from behind / Trophy. Meshorer, Aelia 46; Kadman 52; Rosenberger 29; SNG ANS -. ex CNG 208 lot 273 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Marcus Aurelius 161-180 A.D. AE 26mm Obverse: Facing laureate busts of emperors Reverse: Victory with wreath and palm standing left Reference: Meshorer 54 (Author's collection)

Septimius Severus 193-211 A.D.

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Septimius Severus 193-211 A.D. AE 29mm Obverse: Laureate bust of emperor, right Reverse: Tetrastyle Temple with Tyche within, standing under archway Reference: Meshorer 79 (Author's collection)

Caracalla 198-217 A.D.

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina Caracalla 198-217 A.D. Æ 28mm,12.62g Obv: Laureate bust of emp. r. ANTONINVSPIVSAVGVSTVS Rev: Tyche-Astarte stdg l., hldg bust & scepter w/in arch of tetrastyle temple façade COL AELI FELX Ref: Meshorer, Aelia 86c CNG 273, 249 ex. Patrick H.C. Tan collection ex. Robert Deutch collection (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina Caracalla 198-217 A.D. AR Tetradrachm (14.420g) Obv: Laur. bust of emp. r. AVT KAI ANTΩNINOC Rev: Eagle standing facing, head left, on thyrsus bound with fillet, with wings displayed, holding wreath in beak; vine leaf between legs ΔHMAPX EΞ YΠATOC TO A Ref: Meshorer, Aelia 95; Prieur 1617 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA. Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Caracalla, 198-217. Tetradrachm (Silver, 27 mm, 13.00 g, 12 h), 215-217. ΑΥΤ ΚΑΙ ΑΝΤωΝΙΝΟC CЄ Laureate, draped and cuirassed bust of Caracalla to right, seen from front. Rev. ΔΗΜΑΡΧ ΕΞ ΥΠΑΤΟC Τ Δ Eagle standing facing on filleted thyrsos with wings spread, head to left and holding wreath in beak; between the eagle's legs, wine jar. Prieur 1626-7 var (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem) Caracalla, 198-217 AD. AR Tetradrachm (31 mm, 12.64 g, 12 h). Obv: AYT KAI AN-TⲰNЄINOC C Laureate bust of Caracalla to right, slight drapery on his left shoulder Rev: ΔΗΜΑΡΧ Ε-Ξ ΥΠΑΤΟC ΤO Δ Eagle standing facing on thyrsos, head left, holding wreath in beak; between legs, vine leaf. Ref: Prieur 1615; Leu 30 lot 1584 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina Caracalla. 198-217 AD. AR Tetradrachm, 27mm, 13.9g Obv: Laur. bust of emp. r. AVT KAI ANTΩNINOC Rev: Eagle standing facing, head l., on thyrsus bound with fillet, with wings displayed, holding wreath in beak; vine leaf between legs ΔHMAPX EΞ YΠATOC TO A Ref: Meshorer, Aelia 94; Prieur 1620A (one specimen cited by Prieur (Author's collection)

Elagabalus 218-222 A.D.

JUDAEA. Aelia Capitolina Elagabalus 218-222 AD Æ 36mm, 18.42g Obv: Radiate, draped and Cuirassed bust right. Rev: She-wolf standing right, head left, suckling the twins Romulus and Remus. Ref: Meshorer 114b - this coin illustrated (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Elagabalus 218-222 A.D. AE 31mm Obverse: Radiate bust of emperor, right Reverse: Shewolf suckling Romulus and Remus Reference: Meshorer 114 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Elagabalus. AD 218-222. Æ (32mm, 14.98 g, 12h). Radiate, draped, and cuirassed bust right, seen from behind / She-wolf standing right, suckling the twins Romulus and Remus. Meshorer, Aelia 117; SNG ANS 623 var. (laureate). (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina Elagabalus 218-222 A.D. Æ 25mm, 12.28g Obv: Rad. bust of emp. r. IMP C M AVR ANTONINVS AVG Rev: Tyche-Astarte stdg l., hldg bust & scepter w/in arch of tetrastyle temple façade COL AEL CAP COMM Ref: Meshorer, Aelia 126 var. (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina Elagabalus 218-222 A.D. Æ 24mm, 10.86g Obv: Laur. bust of emp. r. IMP CMAAN TONINVS Rev: Bareheaded, draped bust of Severus Alexander, l. MAVSEALEXANDRVSN Ref: Meshorer, Aelia 139 CNG 90, 1204 ex. Patrick H.C. Tan collection ex. Robert Deutch collection (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina Elagabalus 218-222 A.D. Æ 22mm, 8.79g Obv: Radiate bust of emp. r. IMPCMAVR ANTONINVSA Rev: Draped bust of Serapis, r. COLAEL CAPCOMM PF Ref: Meshorer, Aelia 135 CNG 90, 1202 ex. Patrick H.C. Tan collection ex. Robert Deutch collection (Author's collection) - featured on followinghadrian.com

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Trajan Decius. AD 249-251. Æ (27mm, 12.78 g, 12h). Laureate and cuirassed bust right, seen from behind / Etruscus and Hostilian standing vis-à-vis, clasping hands. Meshorer, Aelia 156; Kadman 172; Rosenberger -; SNG ANS 628. ex CNG 239, lot 414 (Author's collection)

Herenius Etruscus

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem) Herennius Etruscus. AD 249-251. Æ (25mm, 12.79 g, 12h). Obv: Radiate, draped, and cuirassed bust right, seen from behind QHERETR MESDECIOCAES Rev: Tyche standing left, right foot on helmet, holding small bust and scepter, crowned by Nike standing on column to right; to left, aquila and cantharus. COLAE LK APCOMPF Ref: Meshorer, Aelia 166; Kadman, Aelia 182 CNG e566 lot 447 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Herenius Etruscus 250-251 A.D. AE 24mm Obverse: Radiate bust of emperor, right Reverse: Legionary Eagle sitting atop the shewolf suckling twins, Remus and Romulus. Reference: Meshorer 168 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Herenius Etruscus 250-251 A.D. AE 27mm Obverse: Radiate bust of emperor, right Reverse: Legionary Eagle with standard element above sitting atop a Boar. Reference: Meshorer 169 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Herennius Etruscus. As Caesar, AD 249-251. Æ (2627mm, 16.83 g, 1h). Radiate and draped bust right / Zeus or Serapis standing right, holding scepter and small bust. Cf. Meshorer, Aelia 171 (description notes thyrsos between scepter and figure, although not visible in illustration); Sofaer 156. Ex Classical Numismatic Group Electronic Auction 251 (9 March 2011), lot 248 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Hostilian. AD 251. Æ (28mm, 11.13 g, 1h). Radiate and draped bust right / Tyche standing left, holding small bust and leaning on scepter, being crowned by Nike on short column behind her; aquila to left. Meshorer, Aelia 179a; Rosenberger 99 var. (wine jug before Tyche); SNG ANS - (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Hostilian 251 A.D. AE 28mm Obverse: Radiate bust of emperor, right Reverse: Shewolf suckling twins Romulus and Remus; Legionary Eagle above Reference: Meshorer 181 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina Hostilian 251 A.D. Æ 27mm, 12.5g Obv: Laur. bust of emp. r. C VALOST MES QVINTVSCAE Rev: Shewolf suckling twins; Legionary Eagle above, flanked by two vexilla, COL A ELKAPCOM, PF Ref: Meshorer, Aelia 182 best known example (Author’s collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Hostilian 251 A.D. AE 28mm Obverse: Radiate bust of emperor, right Reverse: Shewolf suckling twins Romulus and Remus Reference: Meshorer 180 (Author's collection)

10th Legion Countermarks on Judean coins

Tenth Legion - Legio X Fretensis
The 10th legion was founded in 41 or 40 B.C. by Julius Caesar's heir Octavian, who needed it to put an end to Sextus Pompeius' occupation of Sicily. The new unit received its number as a reminder of Caesar's tenth legion - although the original legion served in the army of Octavian's fellow-triumvir and rival Marc Antony. The governor of Syria, Publius Quinctilius Varus, used three of the four Syrian legions to suppress the rebellions of the Jewish messianic claimants Judas, Simon, and Athronges after the death of King Herod the Great in 4 B.C. It is likely that X Fretensis was among them. In the autumn of 66 A.D., a subunit of the Tenth tried to recover Jerusalem which had become rebellious. However, during this initial effort the unit was repelled and the eagle standard was lost. This incident was one of the causes of the Jewish War. The 10th legion spent the following winter in Acco Ptolemais but by 67 A.D. onward, X Fretensis was engaged in the war against the Jews. It was commanded by Marcus Ulpius Trajanus, the father of the future emperor (Trajan) and the supreme commander of the Roman forces in Judaea was General Vespasian (who was to become emperor following the suicide of Nero in 68 A.D).

After the first year of war, X Fretensis and V Macedonica camped during the winter at Caesarea Maritima and after the capture of Gamala, the Tenth moved to Scythopolis (modern Beth-Shean). In the summer of 68, X Fretensis was active in the valley of the river Jordan and destroyed the monastery of Qumran, where the Dead See-scrolls have been found. It then wintered in Jericho the following year. In 70 A.D., X Fretensis took part in the siege of Jerusalem and was then stationed on the Mount of Olives. X Fretensis was to stay in Judaea for more than a century and a half following the fall of the city.

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The Legio Decio Fretensis or 10th Roman Legion was likely the central (but not sole) Roman legion that formed the citizenry of Aelia Capitolina.

10th Legion countermark of a Galley, Boar, and Dophin (below), and LXF (Legio Decio Frentensis), over a coin minted in Ascalon (Hendin 1604; Author's collection)

0th Legion countermark of a Galley, Boar, and Dophin (below), and LXF (Legio Decio Frentensis), over a coin minted in Ascalon (Hendin 1604; Author's collection)

LXF Countermark on coin from Sebaste (Author's collection)

Similar example of Legio Decio Fretensis countermark on coin of Samaria, Sebaste (Domitian)

Close up of 10th Legion Galley countermark on unknown Judean coin (Author's collection)

JUDAEA. Sebaste. Domitian. As Caesar, AD 69-81. AE 25mm. 10th Legion counter mark (Author's collection).

SAMARIA. Sebaste. Domitian (AD 81-96). AE (25mm, 12.92 gm, 8h). 10th legion counter marks (boar and galley) - Author's collection

Holy Land terra cotta oil lamp ca. 1200-560 B.C. Adler 9-12 325g 14.9 x 15.2 cm in diameter, 6.8 cm tall (Author's collection)

Pottery shard (stamped handle) ca. 704-701 B.C., Time of king Hezekiah; reference to a vessel used for the king

Herodian Oil Lamp ca. 1st cent. A.D. Adler 92 (HER.3 type), 86mm length, 64mm width (Author's collection)

Caiphus' ossuary; Caiphus was the High Priest at the time of Jesus' crucifixtion

1st century tomb with roll-away stone door

crucified heal with nail still in it

Caiphus' granddaughter's ossuary

1st century A.D. fishing boat found in the Sea of Galilee

Roman iron fish hook. Circa 1st-3rd century A.D. Length 84 mm (found in the Black Sea region) - Author's collection

Boat found in Galilee ca 1st cent AD

Nicene Creed mosaic (4th century A.D.)

Theodore, Metropolitan of Tarsus 7th century AD. PB Seal 26mm, 13.30g, 12h Obv.: Bust of apostle Paul, facial, nimbate, wearing a chiton, columnar inscription ΟΑΠΟCΤΟΛΟC- ΠΑΥΛΟC, underneath, + TAPCOV Rev.: Cruciform monogram reading as ΘΕΟΔΩΡΟΥ ΜΗΤΡΟΠΟΛΙΤΟΥ (of Theodore metropolitan). Ref: BLS I 2965a. (Author's collection) - Theodore who participated in the Sixth Ecumenical Council held in Constantinople in 680-1

Byzantine Cross of the Angel Michael

Chi Rho Christian red-ware oil lamp ca. 5th century A.D. (Author's collection)

North African 5th-6th cent oil lamp with Chi Rho (Author' collection)

Cuneiform tablet 10th yr of Nebuchadnezzar II (595 BC) names Nebo-Sarsekim Jeremiah - siege of Jerusalem in 587 BC with Nebuchadnezzar (reference Jeremiah 39:3)

Tel Dan Stela—the ninth-century B.C. inscription of King David

Old Babylonian cuneiform tablet. Age of Hammurapi, Circa 1750 B.C., account of a loan of barley 4.7 X 3.9cm (Author's collection)

Ugaritic Alphabet

inscription of Bethlehem on seal ca. 700 B.C. (1st recorded reference to the town of Bethlehem in written record)

JUDAEA. Bar Kochba Revolt. 132-135 CE. AR Zuz. Three-string lyre or harp (image courtesy of CNG)

JUDAEA. Bar Kochba Revolt. 132-135 CE. AR Zuz. Ceremonial jug.

JUDAEA. Bar Kochba Revolt. 132-135 CE. large bronze. Year 1

JUDAEA. Bar Kokhba Revolt (AD 132-135 AD). AE small bronze (20mm, 8.04 gm, 5h). Dated Year 1 (AD 132/3). Paleo-Hebrew year one of the redemption of Israel, bunch of grapes with branch and small leaf / Eleazar the priest retrograde across fields; seven-branched palm tree with two bunches of dates. Mildenberg 327, 147 (same dies). Hendin 1380a. TJC 225. AJC II 266, 8. Ex Shoshana Collection (Heritage 3003, 8 March 2012), lot 20244 (Author's collection)

Dome of the Rock, Temple mount Jerusalem glazed tile, 8.3 cm length, 5.1cm wide, 2.6cm thick removed in 20th cent renovation (ca. 18th-19th cent. tile) Author's collection

Crusaders Kingdom of Jerusalem Baldwin III 1143-1163 A.D. BI Obol (16mm 1.09g) Obv.: BAL∂V[IҺ]VS RЄX, cross Rev.: ∂Є IЄRVSALЄM, Tower of David Ref: Metcalf, Crusades 166-7; CCS 21 (Author's collection)

Biblical Archeology

Epic of Gilgamesh ca. 2000 B.C.; chronicles the creation of man and an ancient global flood (similar to the Biblical account in some details)

Code of Hammurabi stele (full stele). The Code of Hammurabi is a well-preserved Babylonia law code, dating back to about 1772 BC. It is one of the oldest deciphered writings of significant length in the world. The sixth Babylonian king, Hammurabi, enacted the code. He ruled for 42 years, ca. 1792 to 1750 B.C. On the stone slab there are 44 columns and 28 paragraphs that contained over 282 laws. Earlier collections of laws include the Code of Ur-Nammu, king of Ur (ca. 2050 BC), the Laws of Eshnunna (ca. 1930 BC) and the codex of Lipit-Ishtar of Isin (ca. 1870 BC), while later ones include the Hittite laws, the Assyrian laws, and Mosaic Law. These codes come from similar cultures in a relatively small geographical area, and they have passages which resemble each other.

Ahmose the brother of the Pharoah of Moses 18th dynasty 1550 BC

The Merneptah Stele (in Cairo) contains an inscription by the Egyptian king Merneptah (1213-1203 B.C.). The Stele was erected by the king Amenhotep III. The Stele is notable for being the only Ancient Egyptian document generally accepted as mentioning "Isrir" or "Israel". It is the earliest known attestation of the nation of Israel dating from the 13th century B.C. The line referring to Merneptah's Canaanite campaign reads: Canaan is captive with all woe. Ashkelon is conquered, Gezer seized, Yanoam made nonexistent; Israel is wasted, bare of seed.

Stele mentioning the House of David

Uzziah tomb inscription

Cuneiform alphabet: Knowledge of cuneiform was lost until 1835 when Henry Rawlinson, a British army officer, found some of the Behistun inscriptions on a cliff at Behistun in Persia. Carved in the reign of King Darius of Persia (522 -486 BC), they consisted of identical texts in the three official languages of the empire: Old Persian, Babylonian, and Elamite. The Behistun inscription was to the decipherment of cuneiform what the Rosetta Stone was to the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs.

letter to Akhenaten (1353-1336 B.C.) found in Jerusalem

Sumerian Cuneiform Clay Nail: Gudea, Governor of Lagash  An ancient Sumerian cuneiform inscribed clay foundation nail of Gudea, ruler of Lagash, in which the ruler dedicates the building of a temple to the hero Ningirsu (a god of battle) in honor of the primeval god Enlil, the temple apparently adorned with an apotropaic image of Anzu, the brilliant lion headed eagle demon.    "Ningirsu, the mighty warrior of Enlil, Gudea, governor of Lagash, made appear that which will last forever, the Eninnu, Brilliant-Lion-Headed-Eagle, Anzu Temple, he built." (Author's collection)

Cuneiform tablet from Nebucunezzer detailing temple-destruction

Akkadian Serpentine Seal-Cylinder with Cuneiform Inscription (Author's collection)

nabonidus cylinder Daniel 5-1,5-6,13,16-31 confirming King Belshazzar

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina Hadrian 117-138 A.D., Æ 23mm Obv: Laur. bust of emp. r. COL(onia) AEL(ia) KAPIT(olina) COND(ita) - “The founding of the Colony of Aelia Capitolina” Rev: Emperor plowing field IMP[eratori] CAES[ari] TRAI[ano] HADRIANO AUG[usto] P[ater] P[atriae] - “For Imperator Caesar Trajanus Hadrianus Augustus, Father of the Fatherland.” Ref: Meshorer, Aelia 2 (Author's collection) - this coin featured in Biblical Archeological Review 23, 6 (1997) - see below

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Hadrian 117-138 A.D. AE 21mm Obverse: Laureate bust of emperor, right Reverse: Bust of Sabina Reference: Meshorer 7 (Author's collection)

Aelia Capitolina. Antoninus Pius 138-160 AD. AE 28mm Obverse: Laureate bust of emperor, right Reverse: She-wolf suckling Romulus and Remus Reference: Meshorer 16 ex CNG 47, #2611 (1998; Author's collection)

Author at the Capitoline museum in Rome (famed suckling shewolf behind)

Judaea, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem) Antoninus Pius, 138-161 AD Æ 12.50 mm., 2.09 g. Obverse: Bareheaded emperor right, IMP ANT; She-wolf suckling twins Romulus and Remus, CAE; Meshorer 15 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Antoninus Pius 138-161 A.D. AE 21mm Obverse: Laureate bust of emperor, right Reverse: Bust of Tyche, right Reference: Meshorer 21 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Antoninus Pius 138-161 A.D. AE 16mm - clipped in antiquity Obverse: Laureate bust of emperor, right Reverse: Bust of Tyche, right Reference: Meshorer 21 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina Antoninus Pius. 138-161 A.D. Æ 23mm, 10.12g Obv: Laur. bust of emp. r. IMP ANTONINVS AVG PPP Rev: Dioscuri facing eachother, hldg spear, eagle between COA ECA Ref: Meshorer, Aelia 22 CNG 273, 229 ex. Patrick H.C. Tan collection ex. Robert Deutch collection (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Antoninus Pius 138-161 A.D. AE 18mm Obverse: Laureate bust of emperor, right Reverse: Legionary Galley Reference: Meshorer 31 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem) Antoninus Pius. 138-161 CE. Æ (15mm, 3.78 g, 7h). Obv: Laureate, draped, and cuirassed bust right, seen from behind IMP ANT ONINO AVG Rev: Galley left COL AEL CAP Ref: Meshorer, Aelia 31; Kadman, Aelia 34 ex Patrick H. C. Tan Collection (CNG e299 lot 318 (2013) (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina Antoninus Pius. 138-161 A.D. Æ 11mm, 2.3g Obv: Laur. bust of emp. r. IMP ANTO NINVS AVGPPP Rev: Galley, KA (above), C (below) Ref: Meshorer, Aelia 32 best known example (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina Marcus Aurelius 160-180 A.D. Æ 28mm Obv: Confronted busts IMP CAES M AVREL ANTONINVS AVG Rev: Serapis seated left, scepter in left, right extended over Kerberos seated at feet COLAELCAP Ref: Meshorer, Aelia 45 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Marcus Aurelius 161-180 A.D. AE 29mm Obverse: Facing laureate busts of emperors Reverse: Tetrastyle Temple with Tyche standing left Reference: Meshorer 52 (Author's collection)

Commodus 177-192 A.D.

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Commodus. AD 177-192. Æ (30mm, 21.86 g, 12h). Laureate bust right, slight drapery / Crispina and Lucilla standing facing one another, clasping right hands. Meshorer, Aelia 67; Sofaer 64, ex Tauler & Fau (Author's collection)

JUDAEA. Aelia Capitolina Commodus 177-192 AD Æ 26mm Obv: IMP CAE AV-RE COMMODVS AVG Laur. bust of Commodus right, drapery on shoulder Rev: Diety standing within tetrastyle arched temple; COL A..... Ref: Meshorer 72 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina Commodus 180-192 A.D. Æ 28mm,14.39g Obv: Laur. bust of emp. r. IMPCAES MAVR COMMODVS AVG Rev: Draped bust of Serapis r., COL AE LCAP Ref: Meshorer, Aelia 71 CNG 90, 1187 ex. Patrick H.C. Tan collection ex. Robert Deutch collection (Author's collection) finest known example

Macrinus 217-218 A.D.

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina Macrinus 217-218 A.D. AR Tetradrachm (12.71g). Obv .: AΥT K M OΠΛ MAKΡ [INO ΣEB], bust with laurel wreath, seen from behind to the right. Rev .: ΔHMAΡX EΞ ΥΠATOΣ ΠΠ, eagle with a wreath in its beak stands with spread legs on a thyrsos, head to the left, amphora between the legs, in the section of grapes. Prieur 1640; Meshorer, Aelia 96; ex Gorny & Mosch 211 lot 498 (Author's collection) - one of the finest known examples

JUDAEA. Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Macrinus, 217-218 AD. AR Tetradrachm 27 mm, 13.13 g, 1 h Obv: ΑΥΤ Κ Μ ΟΠΛ (sic) ΜΑΚΡΙΝΟ C[ЄΒ] Laureate head of Macrinus to right. Rev: ΔΗΜΑΡΧ ЄΞ ΥΠΑΤΟC ΠΠ Eagle standing facing on filleted thyrsos with wings spread, head to left and holding wreath in beak; between the eagle's legs, wine jar. Ref: Bellinger -. Prieur 1638 (same obverse) (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Macrinus 217-218 A.D. AE 20mm Obverse: Laureate bust of emperor, right Reverse: Bust of Serapis Reference: Meshorer 104 (Author's collection)

Diadumenian 217-218 A.D.

JUDAEA. Aelia Capitolina Diadumenian 217-218 AD Billon - Tetradrachm (14.65g) Obv.: Drap. & cuir. bust of emp. r. M [ ... ] NTWN KAI Rev .: Eagle wings outstretched, amphora wine jug below Δ [ HMAPX E ] Ξ VΠATOC Π Ref: Prieur 1645 var (legend), ex Rauch 17 lot 180 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem) Diadumenian, as Caesar, 217-218 AD. AR Tetradrachm (25 mm, 11.70 g, 7 h). Obv: M OΠ ANTⲰN KAI Bare headed, draped and cuirassed bust of Diadumenian to right Rev: ΔΗΜΑΡΧ ЄΞ ΥΠΑΤΟC ΠΠ Eagle standing facing on thyrsos with wings spread, head to left and holding wreath in beak; between the eagle's legs, wine jar. Ref: Bellinger -. Prieur 1645 (one example) ex Leu Web Auction 28, 2697 (2023) (Author's collection)

JUDAEA. Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Diadumenian, as Caesar, 217-218. AE (Bronze, 23 mm, 10.47 g, 1 h). M OPEL DIADVMENIANVS C Laureate, draped and cuirassed bust of Diadumenian to right, seen from behind. Rev. COL AEL CAP COMM Tyche-Astarte standing front, head to left, right foot on uncertain object, holding small human bust in her right hand and scepter in her left, within tetrastyle temple with central arch; Nikai between outer columns. Meshorer 106 W. Bick Collections, ex Archeological Center 52, 9 April 2012, 114 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina Elagabalus 218-222 A.D. Æ 24mm Obv: Radiate bust of emp. r. IMPCMAVR ANTONINVSAVG Rev: Tyche-Astarte standing l., hldg bust w/ small victory crowning COLAELCAPC OMMPF Reference: Meshorer 122 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina Elagabalus 218-222 A.D. Æ 23mm, 7.39g Obv: Laur. bust of emp. r. IMPCMAVR ANTONINVS AVG Rev: Tyche-Astarte l., hldg bust w/in tetrastyle temple, central arch COLA CAPC MPF Ref: Meshorer, Aelia 125c CNG 90, 1199 ex. Patrick H.C. Tan collection ex. Robert Deutch collection (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Elagabalus 218-222 A.D. AE 25mm Obv: Laur. bust of emp. r. IMP C M AVR ANTONINVS AVG Rev: Tyche standing left, right foot on helmet, holding small bust over horned altar and scepter; aquila to left, cup in exergue COL AAELC CA PFF Reference: Meshorer 129a (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Elagabalus 218-222 A.D. AE 25mm Obverse: Laureate bust of emperor, right Reverse: Quadriga carrying sacred Emisa stone. Reference: Meshorer 133b (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina. Elagabalus; Severus Alexander 218-222 AD Æ 23mm, 8.61g Obv: Jugate, laureate, draped and cuirassed busts of Elagabalus and Severus Alexander right. Rev: Facing quadriga carrying the baetyl of El-Gabal decorated with eagle; branch in exergue. Ref: Meshorer 143. (Author's collection)

Trajan Decius 249-251 A.D.

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina Trajan Decius 249-251 A.D. Æ 27mm Obv: Laur. bust of emp. r. IMPC G MES Q TRA DECIVSAVG Rev: Tyche stng, resting on scepter l. hldg bust, crowned by victory on col.; legionary eagle in front, wine jar at feet; COLA EL KAPCOM PF Ref: Meshorer, Aelia 152 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Trajan Decius. AD 249-251. Æ (28mm, 16.79 g, 1h). Laureate, draped, and cuirassed bust right / COL/ AEL KAP/ COMM/ •P F• in four lines within laurel wreath. Meshorer, Aelia 157; Sofaer 144. Ex Classical Numismatic Group Electronic Auction 239 (25 August 2010), lot 415 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Herenius Etruscus 250-251 A.D. AE 27mm Obverse: Radiate bust of emperor, right Reverse: Legionary Eagle with standard element above Reference: Meshorer 170 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Herenius Etruscus 250-251 A.D. AE 27mm Obverse: Radiate jugate busts of emperor and empress, right Reverse: Diety leaning on staff standing next to Legionary standard with Eagle Reference: Meshorer 173 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina Herenius Etruscus 250-251 A.D. Æ 26mm, 14.72g Obv: Judate busts of Etruscus and Hostilian AETRVSCVS ET QVINTVS CAESS Rev: Zeus stdg r., leaning on scepter hldg bust; thyrsus between COLAE L KAPCOMPF Ref: Meshorer, Aelia 174 CNG 90, 1211 ex. Patrick H.C. Tan collection ex. Robert Deutch collection (Author's collection)

Hostilian

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Hostilian. As Caesar, CE 250-251. Æ (28mm, 16.60 g, 1h). Radiate, draped, and cuirassed bust right / Tyche standing left, holding small bust and leaning on scepter, being crowned by Nike on short column to right; aquila and cantharus to left. RPC IX Online 2176.12 = 2176.15 (this coin cited) = Meshorer, Aelia 179 (this coin illustrated); Rosenberger 99; Sofaer 161 var. (no cantharus); SNG ANS –. Ex Patrick H. C. Tan Collection (Classical Numismatic Group Electronic Auction 273, 8 February 2012), lot 264 (incorrectly attributed as Trajan Decius); N. Miron Collection (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Hostilian 251 A.D. AE 30mm Obverse: Radiate bust of emperor, right Reverse: Emperor as founder, plowing boundary of city with oxen. Reference: Meshorer 178 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Hostilian 251 A.D. AE 26mm, 14.1g Obverse: Radiate bust of emperor, right Reverse: Emperor as founder, plowing boundary of city with oxen. Reference: Meshorer 178 (Author's collection)

JUDAEA, Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Hostilian. As Caesar, AD 250-251. Æ (28mm, 12.69 g, 11h) [C VAL OST MES QVINTVS CAE] Radiate, draped and cuirassed bust of Hostilian to right, seen from behind. Rev. COL AEL [KAP COMM P F] She-wolf standing right, suckling Romulus and Remus; behind, aquila. Meshorer, Aelia 181; RPC IX 2198; Rosenberger 100; Sofaer 162 ex Abramowitz collection (Author's collection)

JUDAEA. Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem). Hostilian, as Caesar, 250-251. AE (29 mm, 14.39 g, 1 h). [C VAL OST MES QVINTVS CAE] Radiate, draped and cuirassed bust of Hostilian to right, seen from behind. Rev. COL AEL [KAP COMM P F] She-wolf standing right, suckling Romulus and Remus; behind, aquila. Meshorer 181. RPC IX 2198. Nearly fine. From the Aelia Capitolina Collection and the Shoshanna Collection Part I, Heritage, 9 March 2012, 40. (Author's collection)

The Holy City of God

Map of Jerusalem from Medaba, Jordan ca. 5th cent. A.D.

Detailed breakdown of the Holy City of Jerusalem as articulated on the Medaba mosaic map.

Ancient Holy land map from Madaba ca. 550 A.D. (Jordan). Jerusalem seen in lower left hand section of larger mosaic floor.

Map of Jerusalem ca. 17th cent. A.D.

A reconstruction of the Temple Mount and temple at ca. 1st century A.D.

Modern reconstruction of the 1st century Jewish temple in Jerusalem (destroyed following the 1st Jewish War (66-70 A.D.)

Stone found near Temple Mount - "to the trumpeting place", a reference to music or call to worship associated with the Jewish Temple

The Temple Mount

The current configuration of the Temple Mount prominently displaying the al Aqsa mosque - the Dome of the Rock - which sits directly over the former foundations of the Jewish Temple.

The Western Wall (Wailing Wall)

Modern Jerusalem - Dome of the Rock and the Church of the Holy Selplechre

Dome of the rock

Spoils of the 1st Jewish War (66-70 A.D.)

Author at the Arch of Titus in the Roman Forum in Rome

Depiction of conquering Roman soldiers parading the spoils of the Temple

The Temple's Golden Menorah as depicted on the Arch of Titus

Close up of the Menorah

Mattathias Antigonus, 40 - 37 B.C. AE prutah Showbread table of the Temple and Menorah

Migdal temple stone 1st cent A.D. depicting Menorah

1st century menorah etched into a wall (Haifa museum)

Menorah found in 5th-6th century building in Jericho

The Temple of Jupiter

Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline hill during the reign of Tarquinius Superbus ca. 500 BC (a possible model for the Temple of Jupiter build on or near the Temple Mount by Hadrian ca. 130 A.D.

The Temple of Jupiter as depicted on a Roman Imperial coin minted during the reign of Vespasian.

The Statue of Jupiter as depicted on a Roman Imperial aureus minted during the reign of Hadrian.

Statue of Jupiter Capitolinus 1st cent A.D. copy of Statue of the Olympian Zeus by Phidias ca. 5th cent B.C.

The Temple of Jupiter in Baalbek may have been similar in scope and design

Aerial shot of the Temple of Jupiter at Baalbek (Lebanon)

Bust of the emperor Hadrian (117-138 A.D.)

A Roman column that identifies the presence of the tenth legion in Jerusalem following the Bar Kochba revolt and subsequent expulsion of the Jewish populace.

Bust of Hadrian (117-138 A.D.)

Letter written during the Bar Kochba revolt (130-135 A.D.); Jewish zealots fought to resist what they viewed as a desecration of their holy Temple and city during Rome's occupation. This letter details the request for citrons and palms branchs for sukkot celebration.

Massada, the mountain-top fortress from a small contingent of Jewish zealots resisted the Romans

Bar Kochba Revolt Coinage (132-135 A.D.)

(minted in Jerusalem by the Jewish resistance)

JUDAEA. Bar Kochba Revolt. 132-135 CE. AR Zuz. Three-string lyre or harp (image courtesy of CNG)

JUDAEA. Bar Kochba Revolt. 132-135 CE. AR Zuz. Three-string lyre or harp (image courtesy of Stack's)

JUDAEA. Bar Kochba Revolt. 132-135 CE. AR Zuz. Temple trumpets.

JUDAEA. Bar Kochba Revolt. 132-135 CE. AR Zuz. Palm branch.

JUDAEA. Bar Kochba Revolt. 132-135 CE. Seven-branch date palm (Author's collection)

JUDAEA. Bar Kochba Revolt. 132-135 CE. 21mm. Seven-branch palm tree (Author's collection)

Yaakov Meshorer (1935-2004), likely the most knowledgeable numismatist concerning coins from Aelia Capitolina

Islamic Presence in Jerusalem

Heraclius (AD 610-641). Æ follis (31mm, 14.59 gm). Jerusalem, dated RY 4 (AD 613-4). D N hЄRACL PP AVG, crowned bust facing, holding mappa and eagle-tipped scepter / Large M; cross above, A/N/N/O-II/II (date) across field; XC NIKA in exergue. Sear 852c. MIB pl. 14, X28. Very rare; only two examples sold publicly in the past decade. Dark green patina with earthen highlights. Very Fine. Comparable to the example sold in the Shoshana Collection (Heritage 3003, 8 March 2012, lot 20556), which was described by the catalogers as "surely among the finest known" and hammered at $5,000. While the mintmark for Jerusalem mint folles is usually "IEPOCO," this particular example was struck during the seige of the city by Sassanian forces during the Byzantine-Sassanian War (AD 602-628). During the seige, the mintmark was changed from the name of the city to "XC NIKO" ("Christ Conquers"). - formerly Author's collection

Umayyad Dynasty (698-751 A.D.). Bronze AE Fils (15mm) Jerusalem mint, five-branched Menorah (coin from the Sofaer collection)

ISLAMIC, Umayyad Caliphate. Circa 695-750. Æ Fals 15mm 4g Jerusalem mint. Menorah, 3-line legend; crescent. SNAT 29; Barag, INJ 10, type 4 (Author's collection)

Arab-Byzantine, Umayyad Caliphate. 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan. 685-705. Æ Fals 24.2 mm, 2.85g. Ilya Filastin (image courtesy of Agora)

Arab-Byzantine, Umayyad Caliphate. 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan. 685-705. Æ Fals Ilya Filastin, Caliph standing (Jerusalem mint)

Umayyad Caliphate. Iliya, Jerusalem (palestine) Uncertain period (post-reform) AH 77-132. Fals AE 24 mm, 3,21 g Obv: Legends in three lines and in outer margin Rev: Legends in three lines and in outer margin. Ref: SICA II, 1119. ex. Tareq Hani Collection (Author's collection)

Code of Hammurabi

Code of Hammurabi stele close up

Modern reconstruction of the Ten Commandments inscribed in authentic Paleo-Hebrew (Proto-Canaanite)

Merneptah Stele close up of Israelite reference

Moabite stele mentioning King David dates from 840 B.C.. The Mesha Stele, made of black basalt and standing nearly 4 feet tall, contains an inscription dictated by King Mesha of Moab, a contemporary of Kings Omri and Ahab of Israel. Located in Transjordan, roughly opposite the territory of Judah, the Moabites were somewhat closely related to the Israelites, one of their many territorial adversaries. The Moabite language, as demonstrated in the inscription, is very similar to Biblical Hebrew, possibly even a dialect of it. The text of the stele states, "Now Mesha king of Moab was a sheep breeder, and he had to deliver to the king of Israel 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams. But when Ahab died, the king of Moab rebelled against the king of Israel. So King Jehoram marched out of Samaria at that time and mustered all Israel. And he went and sent word to Jehoshaphat king of Judah, "The king of Moab has rebelled against me. Will you go with me to battle against Moab?" And he said, "I will go. I am as you are, my people as your people, my horses as your horses." Then he said, "By which way shall we march?" Jehoram answered, "By the way of the wilderness of Edom." So the king of Israel went with the king of Judah and the king of Edom…When the king of Moab saw that the battle was going against him, he took with him 700 swordsmen to break through, opposite the king of Edom, but they could not. Then he took his oldest son who was to reign in his place and offered him for a burnt offering on the wall. And there came great wrath against Israel. And they withdrew from him and returned to their own land."

Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III in 738 B.C.

Amarna diplomatic letter between Egypt and Canaan 1350 B.C.

Cuneiform cylinder containing description of Cyrus' overthrow of Babylon - the deliverance of Jewish captives

The Rosetta Stone (British Museum) bears inscriptions written in three scripts: hieroglyphs (at top), demotic (middle section), and greek (lower section). The stone dates from 196 B.C.

Rosetta Stone close up

World's oldest tablet of the 10 commandments known (circa 300-500 AD)